Impact Perspective

IMPACT
OF THE STATE, DRIVING FORCES AND PRESSURES ON THE ENVIRONMNET

Impacts are environmental responses to pressures on the current state. Impacts of climatic and atmospheric change, for example, include human health impacts, changes in agricultural productivity and quality of yield, and higher incidence of corrosion of infrastructure.

Impacts should be reported in terms of:

changes in quantity and/or quality of the resource or system

changes in functionality of systems

knock-on effects on other systems or resources (including social and economic systems)

synergistic or cumulative environmental impacts

the time frame of the impacts (i.e. short, medium & long term)

the time required to repair any environmental damage, reverse negative trends, or improve environmental quality should be reported

the spatial extent of the impacts

POLLUTION

Air Quality

The health impacts of exposure to polluted air include serious diseases such as asthma, bronchitis, pneumonia, emphysema, lung cancer and even death in severe cases. Lead exposure causes health effects like neurobehavioral (effect on central nervous system) development, which causes decreased intelligent quotient scores (IQ).

Carbon monoxide (one of the most widespread air pollutants) may result in a reduction in the oxygen-capacity of the blood. The impact can cause disordered mental functioning and increased cases of cardiovascular disease at certain levels of exposure.
Respiratory illnesses and symptoms may also be aggravated by exposure to gases like NO2, SO2 and particulate matter. However, in Greater Johannesburg ambient concentrations are generally so low that there is no real danger as yet.
Environmental effects of greenhouse gases add to the greenhouse effect and O3 pollution leads to damaged crops damage to crops, trees, plastics, rubber and paints.
Environmental impacts of air pollution include reduced visibility, damage to plants or crops, tarnished buildings, damage to works of art, deterioration of furnishings and fabrics (curtains, clothing), corrosion of metals and paints, contamination of lakes, rivers and the general environment.
There have also been effects on the economy as a result of increased absenteeism from school and work due to ill health.

Water Quality

The impacts associated with water pollution are borne by the society at large, are severe and include:

The increasing cost of water purification
Environmental damage
The excessive use of air polluting fuels in attempts to purify water subsequent to pollution
Water borne disease, such as gastro-enteritis, due to consumption of contaminated water
Tourist detraction during major disease outbreak
Decline in work productivity due to school and work absenteeism
The cost of providing health services to those affected by polluted water.
The Klip River’s water quality, which runs through an area of urban development and mining land, is showing evidence of mining residue (low pH values, high electrical conductivity and high sulphate values) as well as contamination from raw sewage (high E.coli levels). This poses a major health risk to anyone ingesting water from this river system (Metropolitan Infrastructure and Technical Services, 1998).
In the Eastern Metropolitan Local Council, on-going investigations have shown that the aquatic biota has been severely affected. Among other occurrences, fish kills occur and some parts of the river contaminated by bacteria have affected the river system to such an extent that fitness for recreational use is now impossible. In addition, heavy loads of ortho-phosphate and chloride have created unique water quality problems upstream in the Hartebeespoort Dam (Southern Metropolitan Local Council: Environmental Status Quo: 1997).

Noise Quality

Noise impact varies according to land use zone, which increases with increasing urbanization.

Productivity can be hindered when excessive noise becomes too disturbing: many businesses have moved out of the city center to quieter and more remote areas.

Soil Quality

The environmental impacts of mining are particularly severe in the Gauteng Province. Although many of the mines are no longer operational, the environmental legacy of mining impacts such as sinkholes, loss of fertile soil, atmospheric pollution, still need to be addressed.
Currently there are smaller mining operations, such as quarries, which collectively still affects the environment detrimentally.

Waste Water

Greater Johannesburg's operational and maintenance problems are aggravated by differences in the management structures in their water and sewerage branches controlled by Council, as well as the lack of co-ordination and/or co-operation between and within these structures.

Soweto and Diepmeadow have a shortage of permanent high level and middle-level skills, especially in the engineering and technical arenas. This has contributed to the reduced level of productivity.
The cost of sewerage treatment and water management will increase during drought seasons, which will consequently have an impact on the consumer. Those who cannot afford to pay for increased rates will be affected more severely. In 1994 this cost was R0,9018 per KL.

Population Growth Rate and Distribution

Shortage of housing
Limited water supply
Limited employment opportunities
High cost in adequate service provision
Due to the overcrowding, the number (and sizes) of informal and/ or squatter settlements is growing, and this leads to shortage of open spaces and increased pollution of land, air, and water. If the population continues to grow in this fast manner, the already scares natural resources will be over burdened.

Population Density

The overcrowding of the inner city with migrants who are unemployed and unable to pay the housing rents leads to a serious decay of the flats/buildings
The measure of serious decay in the city includes accommodation which does not have functioning toilets (7%), electricity (3%), drains that block regularly (20%), and leaking water pipes (25%).
Overcrowding in residential areas have led to informal settlements, backyard dwellings which means high density and poor living conditions with insufficient provision of services. Land invasions have occurred on state owned land and other low-income developments causing people to lead lives below a decent standard of living.
With insufficient service levels in overcrowded areas, chances of diseases and ill health are maximised.

Number of people living below the poverty line

Ineffective urban management and provision of municipal services will result in significant local degradation of the environment.

An escalated crime rate is also a direct result of limited employment opportunities and poverty

Income and GDP

The fact that 48,6% of the population within Greater Johannesburg are without any source of income, and 51,8% earn low wages, has an impact on the affordability of basic needs and services. Because of this factor people are unable to pay for services (water, electricity, waste disposal, and housing) provided by the local authorities.
Lack of access to income results in people not being able to pay for health and medical facilities, therefore increasing health problems; and it increases the rate of poverty. People living in poor housing without access to clean water, sanitation or basic health facilities are more likely to become sick. Their ill-health conditions put them in poorer position when they are unable to work and have to exhaust their savings if any, on health care and medication.

Unemployment

Further decline of the CBD condition threatens to create a massive ghetto that will create a large drain on the resources of the metropolitan and provincial governments.
The high unemployment rate in Greater Johannesburg result in high crime rates.
High levels of crime are driving people out of the metropolitan area and threatening business and investor confidence in the economic heart of the country.
The CBD, perceived as the most dangerous part of Johannesburg, is facing decline as formal businesses leave for the relative safety of the suburbs and satellite CBD’s. The impact of businesses leaving Johannesburg’s could only mean less employment opportunities for an increasing urban population and also an increase in the informal sector.

Transport

High/expensive transport costs to places of work (which are now moving to decentralized areas of Greater Johannesburg as a result of the high crime rate in the city and its depreciation in its market value) may result in illegal squatting on public land closer to work areas.

The time to travel to work is significantly increased due to a poor transportation network to the outskirts of Greater Johannesburg, where most of the work force live.
Productivity at the work place is significantly reduced due to long travelling distances and time.

Access to Electricity

Johannesburg is not naturally forested, thus the use of wood for cooking and heating has serious environmental consequences. The dependence on and the use of coal releases smoke into the atmosphere containing carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide which deteriorates the health condition, of which respiratory illnesses are among the most common impacts, of the people living in those areas without electricity.

Literacy Rates

Limited or no education means low wages and even exploitation. It is because of this reason, among others, that they are unable to afford basic needs and services, therefore increasing the poverty rate.
Standards of living are decreased as a result of illiteracy
Productivity in the work place is undermined
Technological advancement is hindered
Employment opportunities are limited

Access to safe drinking water

The lack of decent sanitary facilities and clean water increases susceptibility to communicable diseases.
Inadequate sanitary conditions, safe drinking water, and reduced access to health services result in people (especially the poor) having worse health, which further lowers their productivity. These health problems demonstrate the higher prevalence of diseases of poverty among lower income groups. The diseases include tuberculosis, diarrhea, fever, and the higher rates of mental disability. Diseases related to an unsafe and inadequate water supply account for the deaths of many in informal settlements and those who cannot afford medical treatment, include diseases such as typhoid fever, cholera, non-specific diarrhea diseases, dysentery, and skin infections, (EMSS, LDO, June 1997).

Access to Clinics

Inaccessibility to health facilities as a result of high transport costs and/or medical treatment leads to people refraining from seeking health care.

Life expectancy and mortality

The high death rate resulting from unhealthy environments and high crime levels in Greater Johannesburg, have a detrimental effect on the economy. When the life expectancy of the population is reduced, people die at the age where they should be working, then the labour force is reduced. The people who are affected the most by these diseases are women and children, therefore resulting in a high infant mortality rate.

Health Care Expenditure

Insufficient health care due to high medical costs result in high deaths, and increased poverty. People are unfit to work and support their families. The economy also suffers as a result of poor productivity.

CONSERVATION

A lack of environmental conservation has had a great impact on the Greater Johannesburg area and its people. Soil degradation, fewer species and less biodiversity are just some of the negative effects that the lack of conservation values have caused to the Greater Johannesburg area. Ignorance about natural treasures has also been the cause of environmental abuse and degradation.
Natural areas are also responsible for the absorption of pollutants and are the green lungs of an area, especially at the metropolitan scale.
The lack of water in the Greater Johannesburg area impacts on the way people view and handle this resource, especially in informal settlements, vagrant and squatter areas. Ignorance, wastage and inefficient use of this limited resource are just some of the problems these disadvantaged communities face.
Urbanisation also affects the land surface. Hard concrete development enhances run-off in the city and deteriorates soil fertility conditions for plant and animal survival. The atmospheric and energy balances are also greatly affected in an artificial city environment. That is why natural areas need to be conserved, in order to maintain this artificial areas (Hugo et.al., 1997).
The positive impacts of nature conservation include:
an economic value of resources,
ecological value in fulfilling a role in the ecosystem,
a scientific value as genetic pool of plant and animal species,
a cultural value as emblems of cities,
a nutritional value as food source,
an ethical value-based on the belief that species have the moral right to exist,
an aesthetic-psychological value that adds to the quality of life,
a recreational and tourist value for relaxation, leisure and economic growth,
an educational value to get people more environmentally concerned and
an ethno-botanical value, meaning the use of veld plants for medicinal purposes.

PARKS AND OPEN SPACE

PARKS

The lack of adequate parks and recreational spaces greatly reduces the amount of social activities available for people in these disadvantaged areas.

There is no biodiversity created in these areas, limiting the ability for different species of birds and animals to thrive there.

Open spaces that are not properly landscaped and maintained, are prone to erosion and other environmental and social hazards like crime and health dangers.

OPEN SPACE

The positive impacts of open space according to the Sandton Open Space Plan (1992) include the enhancement of the urban form by rivers and ridges and greater aesthetical value. It is also a symbol of cultural quality, provides in the city’s social needs, gives quality and pride to the neighbourhood, provides access to safe pedestrian and cycling ways, maintains communities physical and mental health, as well as a place for people like artists to express themselves freely.
Open spaces also have a conservation and ecological benefit, by greening the environment, improving biodiversity, enhancing air quality and managing the hydrology of the urban environment (Sandton Town Council, 1992).
The ratio of open space per person again shows that people in the north have greater access to open land, meaning that the people in the south have less land on which to recreate and develop sustainably.
The lack of funding and investment potential in the south also limits the effective utilisation of open spaces here. As development and population growth in Greater Johannesburg increases, the amount of available open space decreases, with limited measures being taken to monitor this development. If open space were to become an indicator of recreation development, the south tends to have limited potential in this regard.
The lack of open space evident in impoverished communities is not good for people’s psychological health and development.

ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH

AIR POLLUTION

Respiratory illness is the cause of many deaths among children each years and has been name as the mane reason for the utilization of health services

WATER POLLUTION

Impact

Diarrhoea

Water borne diseases

Algal growth

Carcenogenic

Mutagenic

Tetratogenic

Depletion of water resources