These are the pressures on the functionality and quality of the system or resource, resulting from the driving forces mentioned above. For example, in the chapter on Pollution, increased emissions of SO₂, NO_x, CO₂, and CH₄ constitute pressures on the natural system.

This category should explain:

• synergistic or cumulative pressures resulting from diverse driving forces, where applicable
• the spatial scale of the pressure (i.e. which provinces, regions, magisterial districts, or urban centres are affected)
• the expected future trend in pressures, in the short, medium and long term, in terms of direction, and magnitude

• Addressing the disparities that exist between the impoverished communities and the more affluent, is putting pressure on authorities to deliver services speedily, like affordable electricity.
• Inefficient public transport system operating in most residential areas far from the city centre increases the number of private vehicles on the road, for those who can afford it. The accumulative gas emissions from buses and cars pollute the air, especially in and around the city, detrimentally.
• Carbon monoxide (CO), Nitrogen dioxide (NO2), Hydrocarbons (HC) and Ozone (O3), which are all dangerous greenhouse gases are also the main pollutants in the city of Johannesburg. This was especially evident during the winter months (May to August), when cloud cover in the Johannesburg is minimal and temperature inversions are common (Southern Metropolitan Local Council Environmental Management Fact-Pack, 1997).

Water Quality

• Water scarcity: Johannesburg lies astride the main watershed divide for the subcontinent and is one of the few cities of its size and kind in the world, which is not situated on a major watercourse. Thus water supply from reliable water sources is limited. Other than the Klip River, the Southern Metropolitan Local Area does not have access to any major potable water resource. The communities, which are exposed to raw sewage and polluted streams and rivers, face serious health hazards (Southern Metropolitan Local Council, Environmental Management Fact-Pack, 1997).
• Poor technical Infrastructure and management: in addition to water scarcity, a large percentage of drinking water is lost due to degradation of water supply infrastructure and leakage.
• Human activities: the upper Klip River located in Johannesburg is located in an area of urban development and mining land, and is subjected to intense pressure from human activities.

Noise Pollution

• Increasing number of educational institutions
• Hawkers on the pavement
• Residential communities becoming more technologically advanced, thus the greater use of electronic equipment (lawn mowers, hi-fi's)
• Capacity to enforce legislation needs urgent attention (Metropolitan and Technical Services, 1998).

• The exploitation of land (overcrowding) beyond its capacity.
• The inability to increase the sewer capacity and degradation of the sewer system.
• The lack of maintenance or upgrading/expansion
• Mushrooming of squatter and informal settlements without formal services in these areas exacerbate the already degrading situation of soil pollution.

• Demand for better services by a new democratic society
• Culture of non-payment, especially evident in the former black local authorities of Greater Johannesburg
• The government's inability to cope with increasing service demands and cannot comply with the efficient removal of refuse. This problem is worsened by frequently organised strikes and protests by municipal workers who often demand wage increases.

• Attitude and environmental awareness are still major causes among impoverished communities who mostly ignore any efforts or approaches to get rid of their waste more discriminatorily.
• Street traders and vendors are increasing daily, which have become the major sources of litter and illegal dumping of waste in the CBD.
• The CBD with its narrow sidewalks that are overcrowded beyond its capacity by street traders and their goods, pedestrians and parked vehicles make the task of sweeping very difficult and slow. This is especially true for the areas adjacent to the Johannesburg station, the Art Gallery, Jack Mincer parking garage and St Mary’s Cathedral (SMSS, Local Services Committee, 1997).

• Past policies of unequal development resulted in the disparities in service provision, which affect the health of the underdeveloped communities.
• The shortage of safe drinking water is a result of the pollution in the two main rivers in Greater Johannesburg, (Jukskei and Klip), and the inability of people to pay for this and other services.
• There is lack/shortage of proper sanitation services because local authorities lack the capacity (financially and otherwise) to cope with the demand.

• Expensive public sector health facilities, which are not affordable to the poor due to high service and high transport costs of private sector health care. Most private clinics and hospitals require long distance travels.
• The unhealthy conditions under which the poor live in require them to seek medical regularly, they therefore cannot afford regular private health care.

• Diseases for which there are no cure or that are expensive to treat such as AIDS epidemic and tuberculosis, reducing the life expectancy of the population. Major causes of death 1992/1993: International Classification of diseases (ICD) codes. See table below: 

• Crime and violence are other causes of high deaths in Greater Johannesburg.

• The shortage of proper health services in non-urban areas results in high infant mortality rates. The high Infant mortality rate among the African and Coloured populations is a result of the poor conditions which most of the populations were forced to live under.
• Poor transport access to primary health services.
• Poverty within women headed households and lack of education about child care are key pressure issues also affect infant mortality.
• Affordability of electricity: indoor air pollution from cooking and lighting fire is mostly the cause of infant deaths in informal settlements.
• Environmental pollution (air, water and land pollution) results in infectious disease, which increases the death of small children.

Health Care

• The impoverished will rather spend money on food and clothing than on health care.

• Correcting apartheid policies by addressing the imbalances existing between the leafy northern areas of Johannesburg compared to the barren south.
• Strict land use management is not enforced to curb development encroachment onto open spaces
• Government's battle to adequately supply basic services (water, housing/shelter) to impoverished communities and to maintain existing open spaces

6. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH

• Increase air pollution and poor air quality
• Increase in water pollution and poor water quality
• Increase in land pollution
• Increase in noise
• Unhealthy home environments
• Unsafe / unhealthy working environments
• Unsafe / unhealthy school environments
• Unsafe food and food markets