Although the term "poverty" is commonly used, it is very broad and difficult to define. The term generally refers to the lack of physical necessities, assets and income. It includes, but is much more than income poor. One of the goals of the government is to alleviate poverty which is defined in terms of meeting the basic needs.In terms of research it was concluded that poverty is a term used to describe people living below the bread line and are unable to sustain themselves in terms of the basic necessities of life, being income generation, food, shelter, opportunities, health and education. Other basic needs mentioned where infrastructure, sanitation and water. The most common need mentioned was income generation.

The population of Greater Johannesburg may double in the next 25 years. This rate of population growth coupled to the lack of an appropriate economic development, transportation, housing, and infrastructure development strategy, will have a devastating effect on the environment, health and economy of the region if not properly managed. From an environmental perspective the following observations can be made:

• increasing affluence particularly in the middle- to higher income sector of the population, is associated with a substantially higher use of natural resources (land, energy, and especially water); and
• an increasingly poor population coupled to ineffective urban management and inadequate provision of municipal services will also result in significant local degradation of the environment (refer to Miller, Figure 2 in "State of waste" section). More importantly the environmental impacts on human health through the occupation of land which is unsuitable for residential use, and the lack of access to municipal services, have become a serious health concern (SMLC: LDO, 1997).
• The problems of population growth, affluence and poverty, must be dealt with by implementing the concept of sustainable development, which implies that natural resources have a limited capacity to sustain life and absorb waste.
• Population growth and the increasing demand for resources must also be limited, whilst the equitable distribution of services and resources throughout the whole of Greater Johannesburg is necessary (SMLC: LDO, 1997).
• Between 1970 and 1991 the annual population growth rate was 1,7%, whereas the employment growth rate lagged behind at 1,3%. This implied a rising unemployment rate and poverty level in Greater Johannesburg (Beall et.al., 1999). The majority of the unemployed are African youths, due to their larger proportion (77%) of the population and their much higher fertility rate (4,6), relative to Coloureds, Indians and whites (1,9; 2,9 and 2,5 respectively) (Statistics SA, 1998 in Beall et.al., 1999).
• Human poverty implies a lack of basic services, as well as a denial of basic opportunities. People whose basic needs are not fulfilled can hardly be expected to comply with environmental standards or to prioritise environmental concerns above other more pressing basic needs. The poverty situation will now be discussed according to certain indicators.

POPULATION

• According to the population distribution and densities, the Johannesburg Inner City has high population numbers and is overcrowded. This is due to the high rate of urbanisation, the presence of job opportunities, the large amount of multi-storey flat buildings, and the lack of open space in the area.
• Further to the south, relatively high numbers and densities are also found in the South Hills, Kenilworth, Turffontein and Crown Gardens areas.
• Very high population numbers and densities are found in and around Soweto, mainly due to natural population growth.
• Large and dense populations are also found in Lenasia, Ennerdale, Poortjie and Orange Farm, but relatively little in the undeveloped tracts of land between these areas.
• Population numbers are very low in the whole mining belt from the south of Roodepoort to the south of Johannesburg.
• In the north population numbers and densities are relatively moderate towards Roodepoort, Randburg and Sandton, with only a few concentrations of very high numbers and densities.
• Alexandra has a very large and dense population, and numbers are increasing due to natural population growth as well as the fact that Alexandra can not expand as it is hemmed in by established industrial and residential developments.
• The far northern areas of Greater Johannesburg have very low population densities, with the exception of the Zevenfontein and the Diepsloot settlements.
• In general the southern areas of GJ are poorer than the northern areas.

HOUSING

The total amount of housing units in Greater Johannesburg in 1995.

• Natural population growth, together with the migration of population into the Inner City has resulted in a housing problem. Natural environmental areas are being cleared for housing purposes in the suburbs of GJ. Poor housing also means poor services, unemployment and poor environmental quality. This analysis covers informal settlements, type of built form (informal backyard dwellings and informal residential being worse than formal single and multiple residential), the percentage of the population below the poverty line and household size.
• In the south around Orange Farm, the housing situation is serious, with over 60% of the households living below the poverty line of R840 per month. Household sizes vary between 2 to 5 people, the majority being accommodated in informal housing in the area. The same situation and factors apply to Poortjie in the southwest and Weilers Farm in the southeast.
• Around Ennerdale and Lenasia the housing situation is moderate, with between 15 to 35% of households below the poverty line. Household sizes vary between 2 to 4 with residential accommodation being either in informal or formal single dwelling units.
• Housing in the whole of Soweto and northwest towards the Doornkop settlement is of a relatively poor standard, with 35 to 60% of households below the poverty line. Household sizes vary between 3 and 6 and the area consists of formal single and multiple dwellings, as well as informal residential and backyard dwellings. The worst areas lie to the south, in the Bushkoppies / Slovo Park, Protea South and Dhlamini settlements. Here over 60% of households live below the poverty line in informal residential areas. Housing stock in a relatively bad condition also exists in small patches in the northeast of Soweto, in the Diepkloof and Orlando areas, where 35-60% of households lives below the poverty line. The worst areas are found mainly where informal backyard dwellings dominate, and household sizes vary between 4 and 6.
• Housing is of a moderate level around the north and south of the Johannesburg Inner City. In the central CBD areas over 60% of households live below the poverty line, but this decreases as one moves away from the Inner City. The whole CBD is dominated by formal multiple residences, which make the area more densely populated. Moving away from the CBD, formal single dwellings start to dominate. In the eastern suburbs of Bertrams, Fairview, Troyeville, Jeppestown, and Judiths Paarl, about 17% of households rated their housing as poor to very poor, including 27% of flat residents (EMLC: LDO, 1997).
• To the north and west towards Roodepoort, Randburg and Sandton, the housing situation is much improved, with only 5 to 10% of households below the poverty line, with only a few select spots where this figure moves up to between 10 to 25%. Household sizes are mostly between 1 and 2, with only some areas to the south of Alexandra where 3 to 4 people per household can be found. There are predominantly formal single dwellings, but also formal multiple dwellings in these areas.
• Housing in Alexandra is of a moderate to bad standard, with 35 to 60% of households living below the poverty line. Household sizes vary between 2 and 4, and only exceed 4 people in the north. It is mainly in the northern parts of the township as well as other bad patches, where informal backyard dwellings are found. The rest of Alexandra consists mainly of informal residences, with a few formal single dwellings. Informal housing accommodates 2700 households alongside the Jukskei river in Alexandra, offering very little protection against the elements, whilst their location also renders the occupants vulnerable to flooding.
• North of Randburg and Sandton the situation is good except for a few selected areas in the far north, including the Zevenfontein and Diepsloot settlements. Backyard dwellings and informal residences with 3 to 4 people per household dominate the area.

INCOME

The different annual income levels per population in Greater Johannesurg.

• Female-headed African households are the poorest, surviving on monthly incomes of less than R1 055. There are substantial disparities in income of the metropolitan population. In the SMLC incomes range from low (R1 to R1000 per household per month) to middle (R55 001 to R80 000). In the WMLC income levels are divided between the northern and the southern parts, with the northern parts ranging between middle and high (R150 001 to R256 000), and the southern parts consisting of income levels ranging between low to middle. In the EMLC, low to middle income levels are found in areas around Alexandra, and towards the city centre, while areas around Sandton and Bryanston have income levels between middle and high. The far northern parts of the NMLC is an area of low to middle incomes, and middle to high income in the central parts of the NMLC around Randburg.
• The income situation in Greater Johannesburg is worst from the Johannesburg CBD and the south of Roodepoort through to the far southern areas. From the southeast of Ennerdale right through Orange Farm, and Poortjie in the west, average monthly individual income is very low (R1 to R500). The total monthly income (average income multiplied by all individuals in the area) is also very low at R0 to R5000.
• In Ennerdale and Lenasia, and to the east of Lenasia, the situation is slightly better with individuals earning etween R1000 to R2000 per month, but south of Lenasia, including the Lawley area, individuals only earn R0 to R500 per month.
• Around Soweto individuals earn between R0 to R1000 per month, with the lowest income areas being Freedom Park, Goldev, Bushkoppies, Slovo Park, Protea South, Doornkop and the residential areas in the west and north of Soweto. Average monthly income in some areas in the east and northwest are in excess of R5000.
• Southwest of Roodepoort in the Davidsonville, Goudrand and Matholeville areas, all income levels are very low.
• In and around the Johannesurg CBD income levels are low to middle, with the poorest areas being in the east around Denver and Benrose, as well as in the vicinity of Moffat Park.
• Income levels around Roodepoort, and especially towards Randburg, Sandton and further northwards, are high to very high. Individuals to the north and south of the Sandton area all earn over R9000 per month.
• Further northwards income levels decrease, with low levels again found in the Zevenfontein settlement and north including the Lindley settlement, where individuals earn R0 to R1000 per month.

 ACCESS TO SERVICES
The percentage of sanitation services available by type of dwelling in Gauteng in 1994.

• The provision of social services and the construction of infrastructure to meet the basic needs of the poor, is the widely accepted priority of the post-apartheid government. In meeting this goal, the first major task of the GJMC is to rectify the imbalances in services and infrastructure inherited from the previous dispensation. Therefore, the standards of social and physical infrastructure, as well as of education, health, housing and transport, need to be uplifted (Beall et.al., 1999).
• In the south around Orange Farm, a relatively moderate standard of services (water, sanitation and electricity) exists. There are taps inside the settlements, and electricity does exist, although mostly gas and candles are used for lighting.
• The situation is better around Ennerdale and Lenasia, although little service exists to the southeast at Geluksdal / Unaville and southwest of Lenasia (including the Lawley settlement). Mainly unimproved pit latrines are found in these areas, and no water borne sewers or regular refuse removal exists here. Candles and gas are the main sources of lighting.
• Varied levels of service are found east of Lenasia towards the eastern boundary of the metropolitan area, with bad areas in the southeast, where only unimproved pit latrines and no electricity is found.
• Services are relatively good around Soweto, with the only problems in Freedom Park/ Goldev in the southeast, Slovo Park in the south, the Mandelaview / Valentine Village area and Protea South in the southwest. There is little or no electricity, taps or treated water outside the settlements. Chemical toilets are used due to a lack of water borne sewers and regular refuse removal is problematic in the area.
• Northwest of Soweto moderate services occur, with a serious lack of services southwest of Roodepoort including the Davidsonville, Goudrand and Matholeville settlements. There are little or no sanitation services, with untreated water outside the area, whilst only gas for lighting is found in these areas. A lack of refuse removal and water borne sewers add to the problems here.
• A relatively good level of services exist in and around the Johannesburg CBD. Ther are only a few bad areas further south, including Aeroton in the southwest, Moffat Park in the southeast, and the Denver area in the east. Candles are used as the main source of light. Although there are chemical toilets and taps inside the areas, a lack of water borne sewers and regular refuse removal services exist.
• An ideal situation in terms of access to services is found in the whole north of Greater Johannesburg. However, In the Alexandra area, services are not ideal, with a combination of inside taps, and water being brought in from outside the settlements. Chemical toilets and latrines are also utilised. Only 50% of the population here use electricity as a source of lighting.
• Lastly, minimal services is evident in the Zevenfontein settlement in the north, where water trucks are needed to provide clean water. Chemical toilets are utilised as there is a lack of water borne sewers, and candles are the main source of lighting.

EDUCATION

• As stated above, total education is much worse from the south of Roodepoort and the Johannesburg CBD, including the southern areas of the metropolitan area, than in the north. The Orange Farm, Weilers Farm and Poortjie areas, are situated between 7 and 13km away from educational facilities. None of the population have post-matric (tertiary) education, although 10% have a matric (secondary) qualification. The majority of the people have no education at all.
• Many education facilities exist in the centres of Ennerdale and Lenasia, with access decreasing as one moves to the outskirts of these areas. North of Ennerdale and in most of Lenasia, up to 10% of people have post matric qualifications, and up to 25% have a matric qualification. In those areas greater than 3km away from the educational facilities, no education level exists.
• Very little educational facilities are found in the areas east of Lenasia through to Elandspark, and correspondingly low education levels are found in this area.
• A substantial number of education facilities are found in and around the Greater Soweto area, with access again decreasing towards the west and southeast away from the highest population densities. Between 5 and 15% of people here have no education, with another 20-25% having matric only. In the east and southeast up to 20% of the people have post-matric qualifications. The worst levels of education are found in the Freedom Park / Goldev, Protea South and Slovo Park settlements, where 20-25% of the people have no education at all. Further to the west and north, education levels vary between no education at all and matric only.
• In the southern parts of the Johannesburg Inner City education levels are lower than to the north, with up to 70% of people in some areas having matric only, and up to 30% having no education at all. To the north of the Inner City education levels are higher, with up to 30% of the people having post-matric qualifications.
• Education levels are middle to high in the northern parts of Greater Johannesburg. Between 10 and 70% of people have post-matric qualifications. None of the population in the Roodepoort, Randburg and Sandton areas are further than 3km away from an educational facility.
• In the Alexandra area, education levels are low, with less than 5% of the people having post-matric qualifications. Up to 15% of the people have no education and between 10 and 30% have only matric.
• Further to the north education levels are again of a high standard, except in the Zevenfontein area and some parts of the north and northeast which, however, are sparsely populated areas. People in these areas are between 5 and 13km away from education facilities, and levels of education vary between no education at all to very few post-matric qualifications.

ACCESS TO HEALTH SERVICES

• In terms of access to health facilities, most people in Greater Johannesburg are within 1-5km of a health facility.
• Only a few problem areas exist in the south towards Orange Farm, Poortjie, and Weilers Farm, where people are 10-15km away from the closest facility north of Ennerdale.
• Other areas where people are over 7km away from a health facility are found east of Lenasia, west of Soweto and northwest of Roodepoort, although not many people live in these areas.
• Poor health conditions exist in the north, including the Zevenfontein and Diepsloot areas, where people are up to 15km away from a health facility.

CRIME

Crime in Johannesburg (Louw, et.al, 1998)

• Two thirds of Johannesburg’s residents were victims of some form of crime between 1993 and July 1997. According to the survey, burglary is the most common crime affecting the city’s residents, with violent crimes such as robbery, mugging and assault also high on the list. More than a quarter of all people surveyed have been victims of more than one type of crime in the past 5 years, and most crimes happened to men between the ages of 25 and 60 years. Approximately 67% of victims are African, followed by 21% whites, 7% Asian and 5% Coloured (Louw, et al, 1998).
• In the map analysis, crime was divided into less serious and serious crime. Less serious crime, including robbery, shoplifting, theft from residential and business premises, and theft of (and from) vehicles, occur mainly within and south of the Johannesburg CBD, as well as north of the Roodepoort, Randburg and Sandton areas.
• Between 650 to 1500 incidents of robbery are reported annually per police station in and south of the Johannesburg CBD. A similar number of incidents were reported in the northern suburbs. According to the victims survey of 1997, robbery, mugging, car theft and burglary occur mainly in the suburbs, followed by the Inner City. Less serious crimes thus follow the location patterns of businesses and the middle and upper income residential areas, where ownership of privately owned vehicles is higher.
• Serious crime includes murder, attempted murder, culpable homicide, public violence, rape, indecent assault, assault, kidnapping, hijacking and drug related crime. The highest level of reported serious crimes are found in central Soweto, where the annual numbers of reported incidents per police station are as follows: murder (175-233), attempted murder (251-337), culpable homicide (51-86), rape (301-533) and hijacking (151-200).
• The rest of Soweto, the Johannesburg CBD and the Orange Farm area are also affected by serious crime. Murder, attempted murder, culpable homicide, rape and hijackings are high in these areas. Serious crime is of a relatively lower level in the rest of Greater Johannesburg.
• Another area very badly affected by serious crime is Alexandra, where murder, attempted murder and rape heads the list of incidents. Serious crime also affects the Orange Farm area.
• The analysis of total crime combines the serious and less serious crimes. The highest levels of mostly less serious crime, but also serious crime can be found in and around the Johannesburg Inner City. Central and north-east Soweto are also badly affected areas, where mostly serious crime occurs, but also moderate amounts of less serious crime occurs. The northern parts of Greater Johannesburg from Randburg, Sandton and Alexandra northwards, are also badly affected by less serious crime, although serious crime is worst in Alexandra.
• Total crime levels are relatively high in the rest of central and northern Greater Johannesburg, and the safest areas seem to be east of Roodepoort, southwest of Soweto and south of Lenasia through to the Ennerdale area.

POVERTY IN GREATER JOHANNESBURG

• This combines the state of crime, housing, population, education, income, health and services to arrive at a composite picture of poverty conditions. The geographical distribution of poverty still follows the pattern laid down during the apartheid period, which saw the removal of African people from central city townships to the relatively remote southwestern areas. Poverty levels are high in the Orange Farm area, Poortjie and southeast of Ennerdale, including Weilers Farm. The low-cost housing development in the Orange Farm area was initiated in the late 1980’s. Poverty levels are slightly better in and around Ennerdale and in Lenasia (Beall, et al, 1999).
• Higher poverty levels are found in Soweto, where high population levels and densities relative to the northern residential areas, occur.
• Poverty levels in all townships in Greater Johannesurg are increasing due to the growth of informal settlements on the peripheries of the established black residential areas (Beall et al, 1999).
• Urban poverty is particularly problematic in the Johannesburg CBD area, and the situation is aggravated by informal and illegal settlements, and migration into the area.
• Alexandra, to the east of Sandton is now the most densely populated low-rise informal settlement in South Africa, with about 1 person per 29m². Most of the population here are without access to formal housing or employment. In order to upgrade Alexandra and reduce poverty in the area, de-densification and re-settlement of the population has to occur, through various housing schemes, but the implementation of this is fraught with political and social tension.
• Poverty levels are much lower in the general northern residential areas, with the exception of Zevenfontein, Diepsloot and other areas in the far north of the metropolitan area.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

• A report on urban governance and poverty in GJ was done by the Metro Planning, Urbanisation and Economic Development Cluster in 1999 .
• During the Model Communities Programme Research, it was proved that GJ has programmes to alleviate poverty indirectly. The most common programme mentioned was that of transitional housing schemes and housing projects, followed by service delivery improvement initiatives. The research showed that other respondents thought that GJ is trying to alleviate poverty indirectly through encouraging investments, affirmative action and opportunities for informal trading. It was concluded that most of the respondents were not aware of any programmes for dealing with poverty directly, especially through job creation, education and skills training. Experiences in other countries such as China, South Korea, the state of Kerala in India, and Sri Lanka, indicate that it is only through execution of policies and programmes that promote equity and opportunities, that poverty can really be alleviated.
• Greater Johannesburg has a severe poverty problem, which is illustrated by the inequality of services provided between the richer north and the poorer south, southwest and parts in the east, like Alexandra.
• Further research on the poverty levels, education and the upliftment of women in Greater Johannesburg still needs to be done, as this forms the basis of future poverty reduction strategies.
• Indicators on poverty requires further attention, including employment, the price/value of agricultural commodities, child mortality rates, maternal mortality, body weight for age, life expectancy, population per physician, pupil-teacher rates and student learning achievement rates (Carvalho & White, 1994).

REFERENCES

Beall, J. Dr.; Dr. O. Crankshaw & Prof. S. Parnell 1999: Urban Governance and Poverty in Johannesburg. ESCOR commissioned Research on Urban Development: Johannesburg.

Carvalho, S. & H. White 1994: Indicators for Monitoring Poverty Reduction. World Bank: Washington.

EMLC, WMLC, NMLC, SMLC 1997: Land Development Objectives. GJMC: Johannesburg.

Louw, A.; M. Shaw; L. Camerer & R. Robertshaw 1998: Crime in Johannesburg: Results of a City Victim Survey. ISS: Halfway House.